- Coppley, Jackson.
Tales From Our Near Future.
Seattle: CreateSpace, 2014.
ISBN 978-1-4961-2851-5.
-
I am increasingly convinced that the 2020s will be a very
interesting decade. As computing power continues its inexorable
exponential growth (and there is no reason to believe this growth
will abate, except in the aftermath of economic and/or societal
collapse), more and more things which seemed absurd just a few
years before will become commonplace—consider self-driving
cars. This slim book (142 pages in the print edition) collects
three unrelated stories set in this era. In each, the author
envisions a “soft take-off” scenario rather than the
sudden onset of a technological singularity which rapidly renders
the world incomprehensible.
These are all “puzzle stories” in the tradition of Isaac
Asimov's early short stories. You'll enjoy them best if you just
immerse yourself in the world the characters inhabit, get to know
them, and then discover what is really going on, which may not be
at all what it appears on the surface. By the nature of puzzle
stories, almost anything I say about them would be a spoiler, so
I'll refrain from getting into details other than asking, “What
would it be like to know everything?”, which is the
premise of the first story, stated on its first page.
Two of the three stories contain explicit sexual scenes and are
not suitable for younger readers. This book was
recommended
(scroll down a few paragraphs) by
Jerry Pournelle.
- Geraghty, Jim.
The Weed Agency.
New York: Crown Forum, 2014.
ISBN 978-0-7704-3652-0.
-
During the Carter administration, the peanut farmer become president,
a man very well acquainted with weeds, created the Agency of
Invasive Species (AIS) within the Department of Agriculture to cope
with the menace. Well, not really—the agency which
occupies centre stage in this farce is fictional but, as the
author notes in the preface, the Federal Interagency Committee
for the Management of Noxious and Exotic Weeds, the Aquatic Nuisance
Species Task Force, the Federal Interagency Committee on
Invasive Terrestrial Animals and Pathogens, and the
National
Invasive Species Council of which they are members along with
a list of other agencies, all do exist. So while it may seem
amusing that a bankrupt and over-extended government would have an
agency devoted to weeds, in fact that real government has
an entire portfolio of such agencies, along with, naturally,
a council to co-ordinate their activities.
The AIS has a politically appointed director, but the agency
had been run since inception by Administrative Director
Adam Humphrey, career civil service, who is training his
deputy, Jack Wilkins, new to the civil service after a
frustrating low-level post in the Carter White House, in the
ways of the permanent bureaucracy and how to deal with
political appointees, members of congress, and rival agencies.
Humphrey has an instinct for how to position the agency's
mission as political winds shift over the decades: during
the Reagan years as American agriculture's first line of
defence against the threat of devastation by Soviet weeds,
at the cutting edge of information technology revolutionising
citizens' interaction with government in the Gingrich era, and
essential to avert even more disastrous attacks on the nation
after the terrorist attacks in 2001.
Humphrey and Wilkins are masters of the care and feeding of
congressional allies, who are rewarded with agency facilities
in their districts, and neutralising the occasional
idealistic budget cutter who wishes to limit the growth
of the agency's budget or, horror of horrors, abolish it.
We also see the agency through the eyes of three young women
who arrived at the agency in 1993 suffused with optimism
for “reinventing government” and
“building a bridge to the twenty-first century”.
While each of them—Lisa, hired in the communications
office; Jamie, an event co-ordinator; and Ava, a technology
systems analyst—were well aware that their
positions in the federal bureaucracy were deep in the weeds,
they believed they had the energy and ambition to excel and rise to
positions where they would have the power to effect change
for the better.
Then they began to actually work within the structure of the
agency and realise what the civil service actually was.
Thomas Sowell
has remarked that the experience in his life which
transformed him from being a leftist (actually, a Marxist)
to a champion of free markets and individual liberty was working
as a summer intern in 1960 in a federal agency. He says that
after experiencing the civil service first-hand, he realised
that whatever were the problems of society that concerned him,
government bureaucracy was not the solution. Lisa, Jamie,
and Ava all have similar experiences, and react in different
ways. Ava decides she just can't take it any more and
is tempted by a job in the middle of the dot com boom. Her
experience is both entertaining and enlightening.
Even the most obscure federal agency has the power to mess up on a
colossal scale and wind up on the front page of the Washington
Post and the focus of a congressional inquest. So it was to
be for the AIS, when an ill wind brought a threat to agriculture in
the highly-visible districts of powerful members of congress. All
the bureaucratic and political wiles of the agency had to be summoned
to counter the threat and allow the agency to continue to do what
such organisations do best: nothing.
Jim Geraghty is a veteran reporter, contributing editor, and
blogger at National Review; his work has
appeared in a long list of other publications. His
reportage has always been characterised by a dry wit, but
for a first foray into satire and farce, this is a
masterful accomplishment. It is as funny as some of the
best work of
Christopher Buckley,
and that's about as good
as contemporary political humour gets. Geraghty's plot is
not as zany as most of Buckley's, but it
is more grounded in the political reality of Washington.
One of the most effective devices in the book is to
describe this or that absurdity and then add a
footnote documenting that what
you've just read actually exists, or that an outrageous
statement uttered by a character was said on the record
by a politician or bureaucrat.
Much of this novel reads like an American version of the British
sitcom
Yes Minister
(Margaret Thatcher's favourite television programme), and although
the author doesn't mention it in the author's note or
acknowledgements, I suspect that the master civil servant's
being named “Humphrey” is an homage to that
series. Sharp-eyed readers will discover another oblique reference
to Yes Minister in the entry for November 2012
in the final chapter.
- Rickards, James.
The Death of Money.
New York: Portfolio / Penguin, 2014.
ISBN 978-1-59184-670-3.
-
In his 2011 book Currency Wars (November 2011),
the author discusses what he sees as an inevitable conflict among
fiat currencies for dominance in international trade as the dollar,
debased as a result of profligate spending and assumption of debt by
the government that issues it, is displaced as the world's preeminent
trading and reserve currency. With all currencies backed by nothing
more than promises made by those who issue them, the stage is set for
a race to the bottom: one government weakens its currency to obtain
short-term advantage in international trade, only to have its
competitors devalue, setting off a chain of competitive devaluations
which disrupt trade, cause investment to be deferred due to uncertainty,
and destroy the savings of those holding the currencies in question.
In 2011, Rickards wrote that it was still possible to avert an era
of currency war, although that was not the way to bet. In this volume,
three years later, he surveys the scene and concludes that we are now
in the early stages of a collapse of the global monetary system, which will
be replaced by something very different from the status quo, but whose
details we cannot, at this time, confidently predict. Investors and
companies involved in international commerce need to understand what is
happening and take steps to protect themselves in the era of turbulence
which is ahead.
We often speak of “globalisation” as if it were something new,
emerging only in recent years, but in fact it is an ongoing trend which
dates from the age of wooden ships and sail. Once ocean commerce became
practical in the 18th century, comparative advantage caused production and
processing of goods to be concentrated in locations where they could be
done most efficiently, linked by the sea lanes. This commerce was
enormously facilitated by a global currency—if trading partners
all used their own currencies, a plantation owner in the West Indies shipping
sugar to Great Britain might see his profit wiped out if the exchange
rate between his currency and the British pound changed by the time the
ship arrived and he was paid. From the dawn of global trade to the
present there has been a global currency. Initially, it was the British
pound, backed by gold in the vaults of the Bank of England. Even commerce
between, say, Argentina and Italy, was usually denominated in pounds and
cleared through banks in London. The impoverishment of Britain in World War I
began a shift of the centre of financial power from London to New York,
and after World War II the Bretton Woods conference established the U.S.
dollar, backed by gold, as the world's reserve and trade currency. The
world continued to have a global currency, but now it was issued in
Washington, not London. (The communist bloc did not use dollars for
trade within itself, but conducted its trade with nations outside the
bloc in dollars.) In 1971, the U.S. suspended the convertibility of
the dollar to gold, and ever since the dollar has been entirely a
fiat currency, backed only by the confidence of those who hold it that
they will be able to exchange it for goods in the future.
The international monetary system is now in a most unusual period. The
dollar remains the nominal reserve and trade currency, but the fraction
of reserves held and trade conducted in dollars continues to fall. All
of the major currencies: the dollar, euro, yen, pound, yuan, rouble—are
pure fiat currencies unbacked by any tangible asset, and valued only
against one another in ever-shifting foreign exchange markets. Most of
these currencies are issued by central banks of governments which have
taken on vast amounts of debt which nobody in their right mind believes
can ever be paid off, and is approaching levels at which even a modest
rise in interest rates to historical mean levels would make the interest
on the debt impossible to service. There is every reason for countries
holding large reserves of dollars to be worried, but there isn't any
other currency which looks substantially better as an alternative. The
dollar is, essentially, the best horse in the glue factory.
The author argues that we are on the threshold of a collapse
of the international monetary system, and that the outlines of what will
replace it are not yet clear. The phrase “collapse of the international
monetary system” sounds apocalyptic, but we're not talking about
some kind of Mad Max societal cataclysm. As the author observes, the
international monetary system collapsed three times in the last century:
in 1914, 1939, and 1971, and life went on (albeit in the first two cases,
with disastrous and sanguinary wars), and eventually the financial system
was reconstructed. There were, in each case, winners and losers, and
investors who failed to protect themselves against these turbulent changes
paid dearly for their complacency.
In this book, the author surveys the evolving international financial
scene. He comes to conclusions which may surprise observers from
a variety of perspectives. He believes the Euro is here to stay,
and that its advantages to Germany coupled with Germany's economic
power will carry it through its current problems. Ultimately, the
countries on the periphery will consider the Euro, whatever its costs
to them in unemployment and austerity, better than the instability of
their national currencies before joining the Eurozone. China is seen as
the victim of its own success, with financial warlords skimming off the
prosperity of its rapid growth, aided by an opaque and deeply corrupt
political class. The developing world is increasingly forging bilateral
agreements which bypass the dollar and trade in their own currencies.
What is an investor to do faced with such uncertainty? Well, that's far
from clear. The one thing one shouldn't do is assume the present
system will persist until you're ready to retire, and invest your
retirement savings entirely on the assumption nothing will change.
Fortunately, there are alternative investments (for example, gold and
silver, farm land, fine art, funds investing in natural resources, and,
yes, cash in a variety of currencies [to enable you to pick up bargains
when other assets crater]) which will appreciate enormously when
the monetary system collapses. You don't have to (and shouldn't)
bet everything on a collapse: a relatively small hedge against it will
protect you should it happen.
This is an extensively researched and deep investigation of the present
state of the international monetary system. As the author notes,
ever since all currencies were severed from gold in 1971 and began
to float against one another, the complexity of the system has
increased enormously. What were once fixed exchange rates, adjusted
only when countries faced financial crisis, have been replaced by
exchange rates which change in milliseconds, with a huge superstructure
of futures, options, currency swaps, and other derivatives whose
notional value dwarfs the actual currencies in circulation. This is
an immensely fragile system which even a small perturbation can
cause to collapse. Faced with a risk whose probability and consequences
are impossible to quantify, the prudent investor takes steps to
mitigate it. This book provides background for developing such a plan.
- Mankins, John C.
The Case for Space Solar Power.
Houston: Virginia Edition, 2014.
ISBN 978-0-9913370-0-2.
-
As world population continues to grow and people in the developing
world improve their standard of living toward the level of
residents of industrialised nations, demand for energy will
increase enormously. Even taking into account anticipated progress
in energy conservation and forecasts that world population will
reach a mid-century peak and then stabilise, the demand for
electricity alone is forecasted to quadruple in the century
from 2000 to 2100. If electric vehicles shift a substantial
part of the energy consumed for transportation from hydrocarbon
fuels to electricity, the demand for electric power will be
greater still.
Providing this electricity in an affordable, sustainable way is
a tremendous challenge. Most electricity today is produced by
burning fuels such as coal, natural gas, and petroleum; by
nuclear fission reactors; and by hydroelectric power generated
by dams. Quadrupling electric power generation by any of
these means poses serious problems. Fossil fuels may be
subject to depletion, pose environmental consequences both in
extraction and release of combustion products into the atmosphere,
and are distributed unevenly around the world, leading to
geopolitical tensions between have and have-not countries.
Uranium fission is a technology with few environmental
drawbacks, but operating it in a safe manner is very
demanding and requires continuous vigilance over the decades-long
lifespan of a power station. Further, the risk exists that
nuclear material can be diverted for weapons use, especially
if nuclear power stations proliferate into areas which are
politically unstable. Hydroelectric power is clean, generally
reliable (except in the case of extreme droughts), and
inexhaustible, but unfortunately most rivers which are suitable
for its generation have already been dammed, and potential
projects which might be developed are insufficient to meet the
demand.
Well, what about those “sustainable energy” projects
the environmentalists are always babbling about: solar panels,
eagle shredders (wind turbines), and the like? They do
generate energy without fuel, but they are not the solution to
the problem. In order to understand why, we need to look into
the nature of the market for electricity, which is segmented
into two components, even though the current flows through the
same wires. The first is “base load” power. The
demand for electricity varies during the day, from day to day,
and seasonally (for example, electricity for air conditioning
peaks during the mid-day hours of summer). The base load is
the electricity demand which is always present, regardless of
these changes in demand. If you look at a long-term plot of
electricity demand and draw a line through the troughs in the
curve, everything below that line is base load power and
everything above it is “peak” power. Base load
power is typically provided by the sources discussed in the
previous paragraph: hydrocarbon, nuclear, and hydroelectric.
Because there is a continuous demand for the power they
generate, these plants are designed to run non-stop (with
excess capacity to cover stand-downs for maintenance), and
may be complicated to start up or shut down. In Switzerland,
for example, 56% of base load power is produced from
hydroelectric plants and 39% from nuclear fission reactors.
The balance of electrical demand, peak power, is usually generated
by smaller power plants which can be brought on-line and shut down
quickly as demand varies. Peaking plants sell their power onto
the grid at prices substantially higher than base load plants,
which compensates for their less efficient operation and higher
capital costs for intermittent operation. In Switzerland, most
peak energy is generated by thermal plants which can burn either
natural gas or oil.
Now the problem with “alternative energy” sources such
as solar panels and windmills becomes apparent: they produce
neither base load nor peak power. Solar panels produce
electricity only during the day, and when the Sun is not obscured
by clouds. Windmills, obviously, only generate when the wind is
blowing. Since there is no way to efficiently store large
quantities of energy (all existing storage technologies raise
the cost of electricity to uneconomic levels), these technologies
cannot be used for base load power, since they cannot be relied
upon to continuously furnish power to the grid. Neither can they
be used for peak power generation, since the times at which they
are producing power may not coincide with times of peak demand.
That isn't to say these energy sources cannot be useful. For example,
solar panels on the roofs of buildings in the American southwest
make a tremendous amount of sense since they tend to produce power
at precisely the times the demand for air conditioning is greatest. This
can smooth out, but not replace, the need for peak power generation
on the grid.
If we wish to dramatically expand electricity generation without
relying on fossil fuels for base load power, there are remarkably
few potential technologies. Geothermal power is reliable and
inexpensive, but is only available in a limited number of areas
and cannot come close to meeting the demand. Nuclear fission,
especially modern, modular designs is feasible, but faces
formidable opposition from the fear-based community. If nuclear
fusion ever becomes practical, we will have a limitless, mostly
clean energy source, but after sixty years of research we are
still decades away from an operational power plant, and it is
entirely possible the entire effort may fail. The
liquid
fluoride thorium reactor, a technology demonstrated in the
1960s, could provide centuries of energy without the nuclear waste
or weapons diversion risks of uranium-based nuclear power, but even
if it were developed to industrial scale it's still a “nuclear
reactor” and can be expected to stimulate the same hysteria
as existing nuclear technology.
This book explores an entirely different alternative. Think about it:
once you get above the Earth's atmosphere and sufficiently far from the
Earth to avoid its shadow, the Sun provides a steady 1.368 kilowatts
per square metre, and will continue to do so, non-stop, for billions
of years into the future (actually, the Sun is gradually brightening,
so on the scale of hundreds of millions of years this figure will
increase). If this energy could be harvested and delivered efficiently
to Earth, the electricity needs of a global technological civilisation
could be met with a negligible impact on the Earth's environment.
With present-day photovoltaic cells, we can convert 40% of incident
sunlight to electricity, and wireless power transmission in the
microwave band (to which the Earth's atmosphere is transparent,
even in the presence of clouds and precipitation) has been demonstrated
at 40% efficiency, with 60% end-to-end efficiency expected for future
systems.
Thus, no scientific breakthrough of any kind is required to harvest
abundant solar energy which presently streams past the Earth and
deliver it to receiving stations on the ground which feed it
into the power grid. Since the solar power satellites would generate
energy 99.5% of the time (with short outages when passing through
the Earth's shadow near the equinoxes, at which time another satellite
at a different longitude could pick up the load), this would be base
load power, with no fuel source required. It's “just a
matter of engineering” to calculate what would be required to
build the collector satellite, launch it into geostationary orbit (where
it would stay above the same point on Earth), and build the receiver
station on the ground to collect the energy beamed down by the satellite.
Then, given a proposed design, one can calculate the capital cost
to bring such a system into production, its operating cost, the
price of power it would deliver to the grid, and the time to recover
the investment in the system.
Solar power satellites are not a new idea. In 1968, Peter
Glaser published a description of a system with photovoltaic
electricity generation and microwave power transmission to an
antenna on Earth; in 1973 he was granted
U.S. patent 3,781,647
for the system. In the 1970s NASA and the Department of Energy
conducted a detailed study of the concept, publishing a reference
design in 1979 which envisioned a platform in geostationary orbit
with solar arrays measuring 5 by 25 kilometres and requiring a
monstrous space shuttle with payload of 250 metric tons and
space factories to assemble the platforms. Design was entirely
conventional, using much the same technologies as were later used
in the International Space Station (ISS) (but for a structure twenty
times its size). Given that the ISS has a cost estimated at
US$ 150 billion, NASA's 1979 estimate that a complete,
operational solar power satellite system comprising 60 power
generation platforms and Earth-based infrastructure would cost
(in 2014 dollars) between 2.9 and 8.7 trillion might be
considered optimistic. Back then, a trillion dollars was a lot
of money, and this study pretty much put an end to serious
consideration of solar power satellites in the U.S.for almost
two decades.
In the late 1990s, NASA, realising that much progress has been made
in many of the enabling technologies for space solar power,
commissioned a “Fresh Look Study”, which concluded
that the state of the art was still insufficiently advanced to make
power satellites economically feasible.
In this book, the author, after a 25-year career at NASA,
recounts the history of solar power satellites to date and
presents a radically new design, SPS-ALPHA
(Solar Power Satellite by means of Arbitrarily Large
Phased Array), which he argues is congruent with 21st century
manufacturing technology. There are two fundamental reasons
previous cost estimates for solar power satellites have come
up with such forbidding figures. First, space hardware
is hideously expensive to develop and manufacture. Measured
in US$ per kilogram, a laptop computer is around $200/kg,
a Boeing 747 $1400/kg, and a smart phone $1800/kg. By
comparison, the Space Shuttle Orbiter cost $86,000/kg
and the International Space Station around $110,000/kg.
Most of the exorbitant cost of space hardware has little
to do with the space environment, but is due to its being
essentially hand-built in small numbers, and thus never
having the benefit of moving down the learning curve as a
product is put into mass production nor of automation in
manufacturing (which isn't cost-effective when you're only
making a few of a product). Second, once you've paid that
enormous cost per kilogram for the space hardware, you have
launch it from the Earth into space and transport it to
the orbit in which it will operate. For communication satellites
which, like solar power satellites, operate in geostationary
orbit, current launchers cost around US$ 50,000
per kilogram delivered there. New entrants into the
market may substantially reduce this cost, but without a
breakthrough such as full reusability of the launcher, it will
stay at an elevated level.
SPS-ALPHA tackles the high cost of space hardware by adopting
a “hyper modular” design, in which the power satellite
is composed of huge numbers of identical modules of just eight
different types. Each of these modules is on a scale which
permits prototypes to be fabricated in facilities no more
sophisticated than university laboratories and light enough
they fall into the “smallsat” category, permitting
inexpensive tests in the space environment as required. A
production power satellite, designed to deliver 2 gigawatts
of electricity to Earth, will have almost four hundred thousand
of each of three types of these modules, assembled in space by
4,888 robot arm modules, using more than two million interconnect
modules. These are numbers where mass production economies
kick in: once the module design has been tested and certified
you can put it out for bids for serial production. And a
factory which invests in making these modules inexpensively
can be assured of follow-on business if the initial power satellite
is a success, since there will a demand for dozens or hundreds
more once its practicality is demonstrated. None of these
modules is remotely as complicated as an iPhone, and once they
are made in comparable quantities shouldn't cost any more. What
would an iPhone cost if they only made five of them?
Modularity also requires the design to be distributed and redundant.
There is no single-point failure mode in the system. The propulsion
and attitude control module is replicated 200 times in the full design.
As modules fail, for whatever cause, they will have minimal impact
on the performance of the satellite and can be swapped out as part
of routine maintenance. The author estimates than on an ongoing
basis, around 3% of modules will be replaced per year.
The problem of launch cost is addressed indirectly by the modular
design. Since no module masses more than 600 kg (the propulsion
module) and none of the others exceed 100 kg, they do not require
a heavy lift launcher. Modules can simply be apportioned out among
a large number of flights of the most economical launchers
available. Construction of a full scale solar power satellite
will require between 500 and 1000 launches per year of a launcher
with a capacity in the 10 to 20 metric ton range. This dwarfs the
entire global launch industry, and will provide motivation to fund
the development of new, reusable, launcher designs and the volume
of business to push their cost down the learning curve, with a
goal of reducing cost for launch to low Earth orbit to
US$ 300–500 per kilogram. Note that the SpaceX
Falcon Heavy,
under development with a projected first flight in 2015,
already is priced around US$ 1000/kg without reusability of
the three core stages which is expected to be introduced in
the future.
The author lays out five “Design Reference Missions”
which progress from small-scale tests of a few modules in low
Earth orbit to a full production power satellite delivering 2
gigawatts to the electrical grid. He estimates a cost of around
US$ 5 billion to the pilot plant demonstrator and 20 billion
to the first full scale power satellite. This is not a small sum of
money, but is comparable to the approximately US$ 26 billion
cost of the
Three Gorges Dam
in China. Once power satellites start to come on line, each feeding
power into the grid with no cost for fuel and modest maintenance
expenses (comparable to those for a hydroelectric dam), the initial
investment does not take long to be recovered. Further, the
power satellite effort will bootstrap the infrastructure for
routine, inexpensive access to space, and the power satellite
modules can also be used in other space applications
(for example, very high power communication satellites).
The most frequently raised objection when power satellites are
mentioned is fear that they could be used as a “death ray”.
This is, quite simply, nonsense. The microwave power beam arriving
at the Earth's surface will have an intensity between 10–20% of
summer sunlight, so a mirror reflecting the Sun would be a more
effective death ray. Extensive tests were done to determine if
the beam would affect birds, insects, and aircraft flying through
it and all concluded there was no risk. A power satellite which
beamed down its power with a laser could be weaponised, but nobody
is proposing that, since it would have problems with
atmospheric conditions and cost more than microwave transmission.
This book provides a comprehensive examination of the history of the
concept of solar power from space, the various designs proposed over
the years and studies conducted of them, and an in-depth presentation
of the technology and economic rationale for the SPS-ALPHA system.
It presents an energy future which is very different from that which
most people envision, provides a way to bring the benefits of
electrification to developing regions without any environmental
consequences whatever, and ensure a secure supply of electricity
for the foreseeable future.
This is a rewarding, but rather tedious read. Perhaps it's due
to the author's 25 years at NASA, but the text is cluttered
with acronyms—there are fourteen pages of them defined
in a glossary at the end of the book—and busy charts,
some of which are difficult to read as reproduced in the Kindle
edition. Copy editing is so-so: I noted 28
errors, and I wasn't especially looking for them. The
index in the
Kindle edition lists page numbers in
the print edition which are useless because the electronic
edition does not contain page numbers.